Research Theory & Commercial Sexual Exploitation

ResearchSex Trafficking
Written By Courtney Furlong

Findings from “Sex Trafficking Vulnerabilities in Context: An analysis of 1,264 case files of adult survivors of commercial sexual exploitation”

Theory development in social science research is essential for several reasons. Theories help explain why things happen, not just how they happen. Theories organize and integrate existing knowledge, making it easier to understand and communicate complex social phenomena. By understanding the relationships between variables, theories can help predict future events or behaviors. This predictive power is crucial for planning and policy-making. In fields like social work or education, theories can inform best practices and improve interventions by providing evidence-based guidelines. Theories can also inspire new research and innovations by highlighting gaps in current knowledge and suggesting new areas for investigation. Overall, theory acts as the "glue" that holds social facts together, helping us to conceptualize and explain why things are the way they are.

 Unfortunately, research into commercial sexual exploitation is challenging due to the crime's hidden nature and the difficulty in accessing individuals who have experienced it. This has resulted in a lack of testable, theoretical models. In one study, researchers reviewed 10 relevant articles and found that half did not consider theory at all.1 While theory isn't always necessary for practitioners and policymakers,2 theory-driven research is crucial for the field to mature and provide effective services to survivors.1

 Macro-level Theory

Existing theories of commercial sexual exploitation often focus on societal-level perspectives rather than individual experiences.3 Key macro-level theories include feminist theory, intersectionality, and the political economy perspective. These theories have also been used to understand intimate partner violence.

  • Feminist Theory: This theory is divided into two main factions: Neo-abolitionists and sex positivists.

    • Neo-abolitionists view all commercial sex as violence against women and inherently non-consensual.4-5 Radical feminism attributes this to patriarchy and male privilege,6-7 while Marxist feminism focuses on capitalism's role in exploiting women's sexual energy for profit.8

    • In contrast, sex positivists argue that women should have full agency over their bodies and choices.9

  • Intersectionality: This theory highlights the varied experiences of women based on race, class, and sexual orientation.10

  • Political Economy Perspective: Similar to Marxist feminism, this perspective examines how economic conditions affect women in poverty, making them more vulnerable to exploitation.11-12

 Micro-level Theory

Theorist, Dr. Ronald Wietzer, suggests that future research should focus on micro-level, or individual-level, perspectives.13 Micro-level theories of commercial sexual exploitation describe the processes of entering and exiting exploitation.3 Entry theories include general strain theory,14-15 social control theory,16-17 social learning theory,18-19 lifestyle-exposure theory,19-21 and routine-activity theory.19, 21-22 Several models describe the exit process, such as the "Phases of the Lifestyle Model,”23 the "Breakaway Model,”24 the "Integrative Model of Exiting,”25 and the "Typology of Transitions."26 These models highlight the importance of changes in behavior, identity, and social networks in the exit process.

Multisystem Frameworks

Ecological Model. Theorist, Urie Bronfenbrenner's, ecological theory explains how individual, relational, social, and societal factors shape a person's experiences.27 This model considers personal attributes, family relationships, community influences, and societal ideologies. The "Chronosystem" adds the dimension of time, considering how age and historical context impact development.

Life Course Theory. Life course theory, like the ecological model, considers how time, culture, context, and family relationships influence people's lives.28 It acknowledges that agency is embedded in relationships, historical time and place, and events, which evolve throughout a person's life.29 This theory has been suggested as a pathway from childhood to exploitation.30-32 Transitions and turning points, such as arrest or motherhood, often involve changes in identity and circumstances at both individual and family levels.

 Revictimization Theory. Studies suggest that individuals who experienced sexual abuse as children are more likely to face sexual abuse later in life.33-34 Revictimization theory connects childhood sexual abuse and exploitation, citing learned behavior, substance abuse, volatile relationships, and socioeconomic status as contributing factors.32 Some researchers recommend an ecological framework to consider factors beyond the individual level, especially since individual agency is violated during abuse.34

 Theoretical Connections

The disparities in educational achievement, mental health disorders, and abuse histories among commercial sexual exploitation survivors that were found in the article, entitled, “Sex Trafficking Vulnerabilities in Context: An analysis of 1,264 case files of adult survivors of commercial sexual exploitation,” and published in the peer-reviewed journal, PLOS ONE, support a neo-abolitionist perspective, suggesting that the power imbalance negates true consent to commercial sexual exploitation.4-7 Understanding the push and pull factors within a multisystem framework can help identify how these variables interact and affect a survivor's ability to exit exploitation. Future research should isolate factors like educational achievement to determine their true impact and consider conditional relationships between various push and pull factors. Developing process-oriented, testable theories is crucial for understanding the conditions that lead to and from exploitation.3, 13

References

Furlong, C., & Hinnant, B. (2024). Sex trafficking vulnerabilities in context: An analysis of 1,264 case files of adult survivors of commercial sexual exploitation. PLOS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311131

  1. Twis, M. K., & Shelton, B. A. (2018). Systematic review of empiricism and theory in domestic minor sex trafficking research. Journal of Evidence-informed Social Work, 15(4), 432-456. https://doi.org/10.1080/23761407.2018.1468844

  2. Thyer, B. A. (2001). What is the role of theory in research on social work practice?. Journal of Social Work Education, 37(1), 9-25. : https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2001.10779034

  3. Gerassi, L. (2015). A heated debate: Theoretical perspectives of sexual exploitation and sex work. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 42(4), 79. https://www-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.spot.lib.auburn.edu/pmc/articles/PMC4730391/

  4. Tiefenbrun, S. (2002). The saga of Susannah-A US remedy for sex trafficking in women: The Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000. Utah Law Review, 107. https://heinonline/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/utahlr2002&div=10&g_sent=1&casa_token=&collection=journals

  5. Wilson, B., & Butler, L. D. (2014). Running a gauntlet: A review of victimization and violence in the pre-entry, post-entry, and peri-/post-exit periods of commercial sexual exploitation. Psychological Trauma: Theory, research, practice, and policy, 6(5), 494. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032977

  6. Dines, G. (2006). The white man's burden: Gonzo pornography and the construction of black masculinity. Yale Journal of Law & Feminism, 18, 283. https://heinonline/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/yjfem18&div=15&g_sent=1&casa_token=&collection=journals

  7. Farley, M. (2005). Prostitution harms women even if indoors: Reply to Weitzer. Violence Against Women, 11(7), 950–964. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801205276987

  8. Miriam, K. (2005). Stopping the traffic in women: Power, agency and abolition in feminist debates over sex-trafficking. Journal of Social Philosophy, 36(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9833.2005.00254.x. 

  9. Ferguson, A., Philipson, I., Diamond, I., Quimby, L., Vance, C. S., & Snitow, A. B. (1984). The feminist sexuality debates. Signs, 10(1), 106-135. http://frauenreferatkoeln.blogsport.de/images/fergusonetal_kurz.pdf

  10. Sokoloff, N. J., & Dupont, I. (2005). Domestic violence at the intersections of race, class, and gender: Challenges and contributions to understanding violence against marginalized women in diverse communities. Violence Against Women, 11(1), 38–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801204271476

  11. Adelman, M. (2008). The battering state: Towards a political economy of domestic violence. Journal of Poverty, 8(3), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.1300/J134v08n03

  12. Edin, K., & Lein L. (1997). Making ends meet: How single mothers survive welfare and low-wage work.  Russell Sage Foundation.

  13. Weitzer, R. (2014). New directions in research on human trafficking. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 653(1), 6-24. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716214521562

  14. Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30, 47-87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01093.x

  15. Reid, J. A. (2012). Exploratory review of route-specific, gendered, and age-graded dynamics of exploitation: Applying life course theory to victimization in sex trafficking in North America. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(3), 257–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.02.005

  16. Gwadz, M. V., Gostnell, K., Smolenski, C., Willis, B., Nish, D., Nolan, T. C., Tharaken, M., & Ritchie, A. S. (2009). The initiation of homeless youth into the street economy. Journal of Adolescence, 32(2), 357–377. https://doi.org10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.01.004.

  17. Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of Delinquency. University of California Press.

  18. Patterson, G. (1982). Coercive family process. Castilia.

  19. Whitbeck, L. B., & Simons, R. L. (1993). A comparison of adaptive strategies and patterns of victimization among homeless adolescents and adults. Violence and Victims, 8(2), 135–152. http://www-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov/pubmed/8193055

  20. Hindelang, M. J., Gottfredson, M. R., & Garofalo, J. (1978). Victims of personal crime: An empirical foundation for a theory of personal victimization. Ballinger.

  21. Tyler, K. A., Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., & Cauce, A. M. (2004). Risk factors for sexual victimization among male and female homeless. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(5), 503–520. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260504262961

  22. Cohen, L. E., & Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review, 44, 588-608. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260504262961

  23. Williamson, C., & Folaron, G. (2003). Understanding the experiences of street level prostitutes. Qualitative Social Work, 2(3), 271–287. https://doi.org/10.1177/14733250030023004

  24. Månsson, S., Hedin, U. C. (1999). Breaking the Matthew effect—On women leaving prostitution. International Journal of Social Welfare, 8(1), 67–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2397.00063

  25. Baker, L. M., Dalla, R. L., & Williamson, C. (2010). Exiting prostitution: An integrated model. Violence Against Women, 16(5), 579–600. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801210367643.

  26. Sanders, T. (2007). Becoming an ex-sex worker: Making transitions out of a deviant career. Feminist Criminology, 2(1), 74–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085106294845

  27. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.

  28. Allen, K. R., & Henderson, A. C. (2016). Family theories: Foundations and applications. John Wiley & Sons.

  29. Elder, G.H., Johnson, M.K., Crosnoe, R. (2003). The emergence and development of Life Course Theory. In: Mortimer, J.T., Shanahan, M.J. (eds) Handbook of the Life Course. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-306-48247-2_1

  30. Cobbina, J. E., & Oselin, S. S. (2011). It’s not only for the money: An analysis of adolescent versus adult entry into street prostitution. Sociological Inquiry, 81(3), 310-332. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.2011.00375.x

  31. Fedina, L., Williamson, C., & Perdue, T. (2019). Risk factors for domestic child sex trafficking in the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(13), 2653-2673. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516662306

  32. Franchino-Olsen, H. (2021). Vulnerabilities relevant for commercial sexual exploitation of children/domestic minor sex trafficking: A systematic review of risk factors. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 22(1), 99-111. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018821956

  33. Messman, T. L., & Long, P. J. (1996). Child sexual abuse and its relationship to revictimization in adult women: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 16(5), 397-420. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(96)00019-0

  34. Messman-Moore, T. L., & Long, P. J. (2003). The role of childhood sexual abuse sequelae in the sexual revictimization of women: An empirical review and theoretical reformulation. Clinical psychology review, 23(4), 537-571. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(02)00203-9

Courtney Furlong

Courtney Furlong, MS, MEd, LPC, CRC, is a native of Atlanta, GA and a graduate of Auburn University with a Master of Science in Human Development and Family Science and a Master of Education in Rehabilitation Counseling. A licensed counselor, Furlong has spent over 20 years working with victims of commercial sexual exploitation from ten countries covering Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America. She is currently a PhD Candidate in Human Development and Family Science at Auburn University and serves as the Director of Research for Street Grace. 

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